Why Is the Wedding Ring on the Fourth Finger? The Vena Amoris and Other Customs

Why is the wedding ring on the fourth finger of the left hand? The short answer is a mix of ancient belief and church tradition. Roman writers passed along an old Egyptian claim that a fine nerve ran straight from that finger to the heart. Centuries later, English writers turned that nerve into a "vein of love," the vena amoris. And when the Church of England wrote its marriage service in 1549, it told the groom to put the ring "upon the fowerth finger of the womans left hande." That one line of instruction shaped weddings across the English-speaking world.

The romantic part, a vein that runs only from the ring finger to the heart, isn't true. Every finger drains blood back to the heart the same way. But the custom has outlived the science by a very long time, and the story of how it got here is a good one. Below you'll find what the ancient sources actually say (with links so you can read them yourself), how the "vein of love" got its name, what anatomy says, why some cultures wear the ring on the right hand, and how to tell the story well if you're giving a toast or writing vows.

Why is the wedding ring on the fourth finger? The quick version

If you only have a minute, here's the whole story in five steps.

1. Rome had betrothal rings. The Roman writer Pliny the Elder noted that in his day an iron ring, with no stone in it, was sent to a woman as a gift when she was betrothed. He also said rings were worn on the left hand.
2. An Egyptian "nerve to the heart." The Roman author Aulus Gellius reported a claim from Apion's history of Egypt: when the Egyptians dissected bodies, they found a very fine nerve running from the finger next to the little finger of the left hand to the heart. Because the heart was the most important organ, that finger was honored with a ring.
3. A dinner-party debate. The later Roman writer Macrobius staged a conversation about why the ring sits on that finger. One speaker gives the Egyptian nerve story. Another gives a practical answer: the left hand is used less, and that finger is the least busy one.
4. The vein gets its name. In a legal treatise on engagements published in 1686, the English writer Henry Swinburne described "a Vein of Blood which passeth from that fourth Finger unto the Heart, called Vena amoris, Loves Vein."
5. The church writes it down. The 1549 English Book of Common Prayer told the man to place the ring on the fourth finger of the woman's left hand. Later English prayer books kept the same placement, and it became the norm wherever those services were used.

So the honest answer to "why that finger?" is: because people believed it was connected to the heart, because it's a practical place for a ring, and because a very influential church service said so in writing.

Which finger is the "fourth finger," anyway?

Before going further, let's clear up a mix-up that trips up a lot of people. When old texts say "fourth finger," they count the thumb as finger number one. Count along your left hand from the thumb and you land on the ring finger, the one between your middle finger and your pinky.

Some people don't count the thumb as a finger at all. In that system, the ring finger becomes the "third finger." Both names point to the same spot. You'll see "third finger of the left hand" in some older wedding guides and "fourth finger" in the prayer book, and they mean the same thing.

The ring finger has gone by several names over the centuries. Here are the ones you're most likely to see.

Name	Language or source	What it means
Ring finger	Modern English	The finger where rings, especially wedding rings, are worn
Fourth finger	1549 Book of Common Prayer	Counting the thumb as the first finger
Third finger	Common in older etiquette writing	Counting only the four fingers, not the thumb
Medicinalis (the "medical finger")	Latin, used by Macrobius	A Roman name for the same finger
Finger "next to the smallest"	Gellius and Macrobius	How the Roman writers describe its position

The Latin name is a nice detail. In the Saturnalia, Macrobius calls this finger medicinalis and describes it as minimo proximus, "next to the smallest." So even in ancient Rome, people had a special word for it.

The Roman and Egyptian roots of the ring finger

Most modern retellings say "the ancient Egyptians believed..." and stop there. It's more interesting, and more accurate, to look at who actually wrote this down. We don't have an Egyptian document saying it. What we have are Roman authors reporting what they had read or heard about Egypt.

Pliny the Elder: iron rings and the left hand

Pliny the Elder wrote a huge encyclopedia called the Natural History. In Book 33, which deals with gold and other metals, he talks about the history of rings. In the classic English translation by John Bostock and H. T. Riley, he says that "an iron ring is sent by way of present to a woman when betrothed, and that, too, without any stone in it". He also notes that rings were placed "on the left hand, the hand which is generally concealed."

Two things stand out. First, the betrothal ring was plain iron, not gold, and had no gem. Second, it went on the left hand. Pliny doesn't name a specific finger in that passage, but the left-hand habit is already there.

Aulus Gellius: the nerve to the heart

The clearest early statement of the "heart connection" comes from Aulus Gellius, a Roman writer who collected interesting facts and conversations into a book called Attic Nights. In Book 10, chapter 10, he tackles our exact question. As translated in the 1927 Loeb Classical Library edition, Gellius says he has heard that the ancient Greeks wore a ring on the finger next to the little finger of the left hand, and that Roman men commonly did the same.

Then he gives the reason. Citing Apion's Egyptian History, he reports that when bodies were cut open and examined in Egypt, people found "a very fine nerve" that ran from that finger alone to the heart. Since the heart was the leading organ of the body, it seemed right to honor the finger linked to it with a ring.

Notice the word: nerve, not vein. The ancient version of the story was about a nerve, a thin cord, running to the heart. The "vein" version came much later. That's a small detail that most articles get wrong, and it tells you the story changed as it was passed along.

Why Egypt?

To Roman readers, Egypt had a reputation for old, deep knowledge, and Egyptian embalmers did open bodies. So "the Egyptians found it by dissection" sounded convincing. But keep in mind the chain: Gellius is quoting Apion, who is describing Egyptian practice. We're three steps away from any direct evidence. That's why it's fair to say the Romans believed the Egyptians had found this, rather than "the Egyptians proved it."

Macrobius and the Saturnalia: two rival explanations

The most fun source is Macrobius, a later Roman writer whose Saturnalia is set as a series of learned conversations over a holiday. In Book 7, chapter 13, the topic comes up because a guest's ring slips off his finger. Another guest, Horus, asks why people wear the ring on the left hand, on the finger next to the smallest. You can read the original Latin text of Book 7 on the University of Chicago's LacusCurtius site.

Two very different answers follow.

Answer one: the heart and the number six

A physician named Disarius says he once thought the Egyptian explanation was just a fable. But then he checked anatomy books and found a nerve described as coming from the heart and running to that finger, where it joins the finger's other nerves. So the ancients put a ring around that finger like a crown.

Horus adds that he has seen Egyptian priests anoint that finger on statues of the gods with perfumes. He links the finger to the number six, which ancient number lore considered full and perfect. He says the longer reasons would take too much time, so he skips them.

Answer two: practical and legal reasons

Then another guest, Caecina Albinus, gives a down-to-earth answer, drawing on Ateius Capito, an expert in Roman religious law. According to this view, rings were originally for sealing documents, "non ornatus sed signandi causa," which means "not for decoration but for sealing." Only free people could wear them, and only one at a time.

Later, when people started setting expensive gems into rings, they moved them to the left hand because it does less work, which protected the stones. And on that hand, the thumb is always busy, the index finger is used constantly, and the middle and little fingers seemed unsuitable. That left the finger next to the little finger as the natural choice.

Albinus ends by saying readers can follow either the Etruscan explanation or the Egyptian one. That's a pretty modern attitude. Even in ancient times, people knew there was more than one possible reason, and one of them was simply "it's the most practical spot."

The vena amoris: where the "vein of love" got its name

If the Romans talked about a nerve, where does the famous Latin phrase vena amoris come from? The best-known early source in English is Henry Swinburne, an English legal writer who wrote a long book about engagements and marriage contracts, A Treatise of Spousals, or Matrimonial Contracts. It was published in 1686.

In Section 15, which deals with rings and other signs of a promise to marry, Swinburne explains the custom of wearing the ring on the fourth finger of the left hand. His reason: "there is a Vein of Blood which passeth from that fourth Finger unto the Heart, called Vena amoris, Loves Vein". (The original uses old spelling with the long "s," which looks like an "f.")

Look at what happened. The ancient "very fine nerve" has become a "vein of blood," and it now has a lovely Latin name. Calling it the "vein of love" is much more romantic than a nerve, which may be part of why this version stuck.

Swinburne was writing a legal work, not a book of romance, so his comment shows the belief was common enough to be repeated as a standard explanation. From there, the phrase vena amoris spread into wedding books, sermons, and, eventually, millions of web pages.

What anatomy says about the vena amoris myth

Here's the part that won't make it into many toasts: there is no special vein running from the ring finger to the heart. It's a myth.

Modern anatomy describes how blood returns from the hand in plain terms. In the open textbook Anatomy and Physiology from OpenStax at Rice University, the section on circulatory pathways explains that "the digital veins in the fingers come together in the hand to form the palmar venous arches". Digital veins are simply the veins of the fingers. From those arches, blood flows into the veins of the forearm, then the arm, then the axillary vein in the armpit, the subclavian vein under the collarbone, the brachiocephalic vein, and finally the superior vena cava, the large vein that empties into the heart.

Every finger, on both hands, feeds into that same shared network. The ring finger doesn't have a private highway. In a very loose sense, every vein in your body "leads to the heart," because that's what veins do. But no single finger is more directly connected than another.

The ancient "nerve" version doesn't hold up either. The nerves in your fingers carry signals to and from the spinal cord and brain, not to the heart.

Does that ruin the tradition? Not at all. Lots of customs survive because they're meaningful, not because they're scientifically accurate. You can enjoy the vena amoris as a beautiful old idea, the way you'd enjoy a fairy tale, as long as you don't present it as medical fact.

How the church made the fourth finger official

Ancient beliefs explain where the idea came from. The thing that made it a near-universal habit in English-speaking countries was a single book: the Book of Common Prayer.

The first English Book of Common Prayer appeared in 1549, and it included a full marriage service, "The Forme of Solemnizacion of Matrimonie." The instructions in that service are very specific. The priest takes the ring from the man and hands it back to him, and the man places it "upon the fowerth finger of the womans left hande". Then, following the priest's words, the man says, "With thys ring I thee wed."

The prayer that follows calls the ring a "token and pledge" of the vow the couple has just made. That idea, the ring as a visible promise, is still how most people think about wedding rings today.

Because the prayer book was used in every parish church in England, and later carried to colonies around the world, its instructions became the default. Many wedding services in other Protestant churches borrowed its wording, too. If you've ever heard "With this ring I thee wed" in a movie, you're hearing an echo of 1549.

Was the ring only for the bride?

In the 1549 service, yes. The man gives the woman a ring, and there's no instruction for her to give him one. Rings for both partners, often called a double-ring ceremony, are a later development. Many couples today exchange two rings, and both usually go on the fourth finger of the left hand, following the same old pattern.

A timeline of the ring finger tradition

Here's how the pieces fit together. Where a source gives an exact year, it's listed. The ancient Roman writers are shown in the order they wrote, without exact years.

When	Who or what	What it says about the ring finger
Ancient Rome	Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book 33	An iron ring without a stone is sent to a betrothed woman; rings are worn on the left hand
Ancient Rome, later	Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights 10.10	Greeks and Romans wear a ring on the finger next to the little finger of the left hand; Apion reports a fine nerve from that finger to the heart
Late Roman period	Macrobius, Saturnalia 7.13	A debate: the Egyptian nerve-to-the-heart view versus a practical, legal explanation
1549	First English Book of Common Prayer	The ring goes "upon the fowerth finger of the womans left hande"
1686	Henry Swinburne, A Treatise of Spousals	Names the "Vena amoris, Loves Vein" running from the fourth finger to the heart
1927	Loeb Classical Library translation of Gellius	Makes the Gellius passage widely available in English
Today	Anatomy textbooks such as OpenStax	Show that all fingers drain through the same network of veins; no special "love vein" exists

Left hand or right hand? Ring customs around the world

The left-hand fourth finger is the most common choice in the United States, the United Kingdom, and many other countries. But it isn't universal. Many couples, especially in Orthodox Christian and parts of Central and Northern European tradition, wear the wedding ring on the right hand. Customs can differ even within one country, by region, religion, or family.

The table below gives broad patterns. Treat it as a starting point, not a rulebook. If you're marrying into a family with a different tradition, the best move is to ask them what they do.

Tradition or place	Common custom	Notes
United States, UK, Canada, Australia	Left hand, fourth finger	Follows the English prayer book pattern; engagement ring usually on the same finger
Anglican and many Protestant services	Left hand, fourth finger	Wording often descends from the 1549 and later prayer books
Eastern Orthodox Christian weddings	Often the right hand	The right hand has strong symbolic meaning in Orthodox tradition
Germany, Norway, Denmark, Austria	Often the right hand	Practice varies by region and family
Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Serbia, Greece	Often the right hand	Strongly linked to Orthodox and local customs
Traditional Jewish ceremonies	Ring placed on the right index finger during the ceremony	Many brides move it to the left ring finger afterward
India	Varies widely	Rings are common, but other symbols of marriage may matter more, depending on region and community

Why the right hand in some places? In many cultures, the right hand has long been seen as the hand of honor, oaths, and blessings. Wearing the ring there connects the marriage to that sense of honor. In other words, the left-hand custom and the right-hand custom both try to put the ring in a place of meaning. They just picked different meanings.

Common myths and mix-ups about the ring finger

Because the ring finger story gets repeated so often, it has picked up some errors. Here are the ones we see most, with what the sources actually say.

• "The ancient Egyptians wrote about the vena amoris." Not quite. Our earliest written sources are Roman writers reporting an Egyptian belief. And they described a nerve, not a vein. The Latin name vena amoris appears in much later English writing, such as Swinburne's 1686 treatise.
• "There really is a vein from the ring finger to the heart." No. Every finger's veins join the same network in the hand and arm before reaching the heart, as anatomy textbooks show.
• "The left hand was chosen because it's closer to the heart." The heart sits slightly left of center in the chest, so this sounds logical. But the sources we have give different reasons: the supposed nerve, the number six, and the practical point that the left hand is used less and protects the ring.
• "The ring finger is called the fourth finger in every tradition." Only when you count the thumb. Some writers call it the third finger. Same finger, different counting.
• "Wearing the ring on the right hand means you're divorced or widowed." In some families and regions, people do move a ring after a loss or divorce, but there's no worldwide rule. In many countries, the right hand is simply where married people wear their rings.
• "The custom has always included rings for both partners." The 1549 service only mentions a ring for the bride. Two-ring ceremonies became common much later.

Practical questions couples ask about ring placement

History is fun, but most people searching this topic also have a real decision to make. Here are the practical questions that come up most, with friendly answers.

Should the engagement ring go on before or after the wedding band?

A popular custom in the US is to wear the wedding band closest to the hand, with the engagement ring stacked on top. The reasoning people give is that the band is "closer to the heart." Some people move the engagement ring to the right hand on the wedding day, then stack them afterward. There's no rule here, so do what feels right and fits comfortably.

What if I'm left-handed?

Some left-handed people wear their ring on the right hand so it's out of the way, which is exactly the practical logic Macrobius described for right-handed Romans. That's perfectly fine. A wedding ring is a symbol, and it means the same thing on either hand.

What if my job makes rings unsafe?

People who work with machinery, in health care, or with their hands often skip rings at work or wear a silicone band. Some wear their ring on a chain. Again, the promise is what matters.

What about couples from two different traditions?

This is more common than ever. Some couples pick one tradition. Some wear rings on different hands to honor both families. Some exchange rings on one hand during the ceremony and wear them on the other in daily life. Talking it through ahead of time is a nice way to learn about each other's families.

Try it yourself: telling the ring finger story in a toast or vows

The ring finger story makes a great short moment in a wedding speech, a vow, or a card. The trick is to keep it short, warm, and accurate. Here's a simple three-part method.

1. Start with the old belief. One sentence about the "vein of love" or the Roman nerve to the heart.
2. Be honest with a smile. One sentence acknowledging that doctors would disagree.
3. Turn it into a promise. One or two sentences saying why the idea still fits the couple.

Here are three examples. They're illustrative, written for made-up couples, so swap in your own names and details.

"Hundreds of years ago, people believed a vein ran straight from this finger to the heart. They called it the vena amoris, the vein of love. Science says it isn't real. But Sam, every time I see this ring, I'll remember that you're the one connected to my heart."

"The Romans thought a tiny nerve linked this finger to the heart, so they gave it a ring as a crown. Anatomy proved them wrong. Mia and Jordan proved them right in every way that counts."

"In 1549, the prayer book called a wedding ring a 'token and pledge.' Today, that's exactly what this is: a small circle that says I'm keeping my promise."

If you want to add a sweet name to a toast or a vow, a pet name the couple already uses can make it feel personal. Our guides to cute names to call your fiancé, nicknames for your wife and nicknames for your husband have plenty of ideas, and our article on vintage terms of endearment pairs nicely with an old-fashioned story like this one.

How to read the old sources yourself

One of the best things about this topic is that the key sources are free to read online. You don't need a university library card. Here's a short guide to finding each passage and making sense of it, so you can check any claim you see repeated online.

Where to look

• Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, Book 10, chapter 10. On the LacusCurtius site, open Book X and scroll to chapter 10. It's short, only a paragraph or so. Look for the mention of Apion and the "very fine nerve."
• Macrobius, Saturnalia, Book 7, chapter 13. The LacusCurtius page has the Latin. The ring discussion runs through sections 6 to 16. Even if you don't read Latin, you can spot the words anulus (ring), digitus (finger), cor (heart) and medicinalis.
• Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book 33. In the Bostock and Riley translation on the Perseus site, the history of rings is in the early chapters of the book. Look for the iron ring sent to a betrothed woman.
• The 1549 Book of Common Prayer. The marriage service is a single page on the Society of Archbishop Justus site. Search the page for "ring."
• Henry Swinburne, A Treatise of Spousals (1686). The scanned book is on the Internet Archive. The vein of love passage is in Section 15, which deals with contracts made by signs, such as giving a ring.

Tips for reading old English spelling

Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century English can look strange at first, but it's easier than it seems once you know a few habits of the printers.

What you see	What it means	Example
A tall letter that looks like "f" without the crossbar	The "long s," an old form of the letter s	"paſſeth" is "passeth"
"u" and "v" swapped	Printers often used v at the start of words and u in the middle	"vnto" is "unto"
Extra "e" at the end of words	Spelling wasn't standardized yet	"hande" is "hand"
"y" in place of "i"	A common spelling variant	"thys ring" is "this ring"
"thee" and "thou"	Old forms of "you" for one person	"I thee wed" is "I wed you"

Once you know these, the 1549 line "upon the fowerth finger of the womans left hande" reads easily as "upon the fourth finger of the woman's left hand."

A quick fact-check method

When you see a claim about the ring finger online, run it through three simple questions.

1. Who said it first? If an article says "the Egyptians believed," ask which writer reported it. Usually the answer is Gellius or Macrobius, both Roman.
2. Is it a nerve or a vein? If the claim is about an ancient vein, it has probably blended the Roman nerve story with the later English "vein of love."
3. Is there a date and a text? Claims like "since 1549" or "since 1686" can be checked against the prayer book and Swinburne. Vague claims like "for thousands of years" usually can't.

Using these questions, you'll spot most of the errors that float around wedding websites. It's also a fun way to bring a little real history to a bridal shower or rehearsal dinner.

What the ring finger tradition says about us

It's worth stepping back for a moment. The ring finger custom has survived at least three big changes: from a nerve to a vein, from iron to gold, and from a ring for the bride alone to rings for both partners. Each generation kept the part that mattered and quietly updated the rest.

That's how a lot of love language works. Words like "sweetheart" and "darling" have shifted in meaning and tone over the centuries, too. Our overview of terms of endearment traces how some of those words changed, and there are separate articles coming on related topics such as the story of the word "honeymoon."

The ring finger is a small reminder that traditions don't need to be scientifically perfect to be meaningful. A ring on that finger tells everyone you've made a promise. Whether you believe in the vein of love or not, that part is completely real.

Wrap-up: a ring, a finger and a name

So, why is the wedding ring on the fourth finger? Because Roman writers passed along an Egyptian belief that a fine nerve linked that finger to the heart, because it's a practical and protected spot for a ring, because English writers later turned the nerve into the vena amoris, and because the 1549 Book of Common Prayer put that placement into the wedding service itself. The anatomy is a myth. The meaning is not.

If you're planning a proposal or a wedding and want a special name for your partner to go with the ring, try our free nickname generator. You pick who it's for, such as a fiancé, husband or wife, and a vibe like romantic or classic, and each suggestion comes with a short note on why it works. You can save favorites to a shortlist, and the Couple Name Mixer blends your two names into one.

Ring Finger Myths and What the Sources Say

This table checks six popular claims about the ring finger against what the old writers and anatomy textbooks actually say.

Popular claim	Verdict	What the sources say
The ancient Egyptians wrote about the vena amoris	Not quite	The earliest sources are Roman writers reporting an Egyptian belief about a nerve; the name vena amoris appears in later English writing, such as Swinburne's 1686 treatise
A vein runs from the ring finger to the heart	No	Every finger's veins join the same network in the hand and arm before reaching the heart
The left hand was chosen because it's closer to the heart	Sounds logical, but isn't what the sources say	They give other reasons: the supposed nerve, the number six, and the practical point that the left hand is used less and protects the ring
It's the fourth finger in every tradition	Only if you count the thumb	Some writers call it the third finger; same finger, different counting
A ring on the right hand means divorced or widowed	No worldwide rule	Some families and regions move a ring after a loss or divorce, but in many countries the right hand is simply where married people wear their rings
Both partners always had rings	No	The 1549 service only mentions a ring for the bride; two-ring ceremonies became common much later

Frequently Asked Questions

Why is the wedding ring worn on the fourth finger of the left hand?

It comes from a mix of ancient belief and church tradition. Roman writers such as Aulus Gellius passed along an Egyptian claim that a fine nerve ran from that finger to the heart, so the finger was honored with a ring. Later English writers called it the vena amoris, or vein of love. The 1549 Book of Common Prayer then told the groom to put the ring on the fourth finger of the bride's left hand, which made it the standard in English-speaking weddings.

Is the vena amoris real?

No. The vena amoris, or vein of love, is a myth. Anatomy textbooks show that the veins of every finger join the same network in the hand, then flow through the arm and chest veins to the heart. The ring finger has no special or direct connection. The ancient version of the story was actually about a nerve, not a vein, and that isn't true either. The idea is still a lovely tradition, as long as it's shared as a story rather than a medical fact.

Why is it called the fourth finger and not the third?

It depends on whether you count the thumb. The Book of Common Prayer counts the thumb as the first finger, which makes the ring finger the fourth. Some etiquette writers don't count the thumb as a finger, so they call the ring finger the third finger of the left hand. Both names describe the same finger: the one between the middle finger and the little finger. If you see either phrase in an old wedding guide, it's talking about the ring finger.

Which countries wear the wedding ring on the right hand?

Right-hand wedding rings are common in many Orthodox Christian communities and in several European countries, including Germany, Norway, Denmark, Austria, Russia, Poland, Ukraine, Serbia and Greece. Customs can vary by region, religion and family even inside one country, so there's no single rule. In the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia, the left ring finger is the usual choice. If you're joining a family with a different custom, simply ask them what they do.

Does the engagement ring go on before or after the wedding band?

There's no strict rule, but a popular American custom is to wear the wedding band first, closest to the hand, with the engagement ring on top. Some people say this keeps the band closer to the heart. A common way to manage it on the wedding day is to move the engagement ring to the right hand during the ceremony, then put it back on the left hand above the new band afterward. Comfort and personal taste matter most.

Who first said the ring finger connects to the heart?

The earliest clear written source we have is the Roman writer Aulus Gellius in his Attic Nights, Book 10, chapter 10. He cites Apion's history of Egypt, which reported that dissections in Egypt revealed a very fine nerve running from that finger to the heart. The later Roman writer Macrobius discussed the same idea in his Saturnalia. So the claim was described as Egyptian, but it reaches us through Roman authors, not from an Egyptian document.

Can I wear my wedding ring on my right hand?

Yes. A wedding ring is a symbol, and it means the same thing on either hand. Many people in Orthodox Christian and European traditions wear it on the right hand as a matter of course. Left-handed people sometimes choose the right hand so the ring stays out of the way, and people whose jobs involve heavy hand use may wear a ring on a chain or skip it at work. What matters is the promise, not the finger.

What did the first English wedding service say about the ring?

The 1549 Book of Common Prayer told the priest to take the ring and give it back to the man, who then placed it upon the fourth finger of the woman's left hand. The man said, With this ring I thee wed, following the priest's words. The prayer afterward called the ring a token and pledge of the couple's vow. That wording shaped wedding services across the English-speaking world and still echoes in ceremonies today.

Sources

We checked every source below while writing this guide. Last reviewed October 30, 2026, by Joan Ramos.

1. Attic Nights, Book X (Loeb Classical Library translation, 1927) (LacusCurtius, University of Chicago)
2. Macrobius, Saturnalia, Book VII (Latin text) (LacusCurtius, University of Chicago)
3. Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, Book 33, Chapter 4 (trans. John Bostock and H. T. Riley) (Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University)
4. The Forme of Solemnizacion of Matrimonie (Book of Common Prayer, 1549) (Society of Archbishop Justus)
5. A Treatise of Spousals, or Matrimonial Contracts, by Henry Swinburne (1686) (Internet Archive)
6. Anatomy and Physiology 2e, 20.5 Circulatory Pathways (OpenStax, Rice University)